Health Benefits of Being Outdoors

… an eye made quiet by the power         

Of harmony, and the deep power of joy,

We see into the life of things.

 William Wordsworth, Lines Written a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey (1798)

It is a scientific fact that the occasional contemplation of natural scenes of an impressive character, particularly if this contemplation occurs in connection with relief from ordinary cares, change of air and change of habits, is favorable to the health and vigor of men and especially to the health and vigor of their intellect…  

                                Frederick Law Olmsted, Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Tree Grove (1865)

When Wordsworth, Olmsted and others offered their observations, there was little in the way of supporting research. Today, motivated by the health issues of obesity, depression, ADHD, and pervasive nearsightedness, a growing body of research documents how spending time outside, and being active, secures a wealth of potential benefits, from increasing our immune response to improving short-term memory (Williams 2016).

As we enter the 21^st Century, half the human population lives in cities. This urbanized humanity is forecast to rise to 70 percent with the next few decades. Spending up to seven hours per day staring at screens of their mobile devices and computer screens (exclusive of school time!), today’s children are likely to spend half as much time outdoors as their parents.

Richard Louv (2012) cautions that our growing disconnect with nature, our “nature-deficit disorder,” threatens our health, our spirit, our economy, and our future stewardship of the environment. He observes that the more high-tech our lives become, the more nature we need to achieve natural balance, and that the mind/body/nature connection (vitamin N), will enhance our physical and mental health.

Simply stated, being outdoors is good for our mental and physical health. An increasing body of research suggests that people benefit from a “minimum dose of nature.” Here are some insights:

1) Getting Outdoors [typically] Increases Physical Activity.  While you can be active at home or at the gym, we tend to be more active outdoors, from raking leaves to taking a hike. This is particularly true with children who commonly spend a good deal of time indoors, sitting down, and sedentary with their electronic media. One study, which tracked the activity of 1,000 children, found that the children were more than doubly active when they were outside (Harvard Health Letter, 2010).

As Lee (2017) observes, “Think about how much of your time indoors is spent remaining relatively motionless, such as sitting in front of a computer or in a meeting, texting on the toilet or staring at the Kardashians on television. Can you really do the same outdoors without feeling odd or being arrested? Being outdoors in many ways forces you to be more active. Trails make you hike. Hills and mountains make you climb them. Bigfoot makes you run.”

“If outdoor activity encourages more activity, then it is a good thing,” says Jacqueline Kerr, a professor at the University of California, San Diego. After all, “despite the fitness industry boom, we are not seeing changes in national physical activity levels, so gyms are not the answer” (Reynolds, 2013).

2) Sunshine & Vitamin D. Vitamin D helps defend us against everything from cancer and osteoporosis to heart attacks and stroke. Many of us who spend more and more time indoors don't have enough vitamin D. Getting outdoors in the sunshine on a regular basis and exposing our arms and legs for 10-15 minutes will give us a beneficial dose of the “sunshine vitamin.”

A note on sun screen. While sun screens are important to protect our skin from the harmful effects of ultraviolet light, they also inhibit production of Vitamin D since they work to block ultraviolet B (UVB) light, which causes sunburn but also the generation of vitamin D. To strike a balance, experts recommend we get our Vitamin D producing sun for short periods, while using sun screen when out for extended periods, particularly during the middle of the day.

3) Nature Improves Mental Health. Research suggests that when we get outdoors in a natural setting, city park or wildness, our minds get an escape from the busywork, slow down, and simply enjoy the surroundings. The experience restores our energy and sharpens our mental performance. A study conducted by the University of Queensland (2016) demonstrated that 30 minutes of nature exposure per week reduced depression prevalence by up to seven percent.

Researchers at Stanford University (Jordan 2015) found that people who walk for 90 minutes in nature, as opposed to high-traffic urban settings, showed decreased activity in a region of the brain associated with a key factor in depression. City dwellers were found to have a 20 percent higher risk of anxiety disorders and a 40 percent higher risk of mood disorders as compared to people in rural areas. People born and raised in cities are twice as likely to develop schizophrenia.

4) Boost to Concentration. Playing off ADHD, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Richard Louv (2006) coined the term "nature-deficit disorder" in Last Child in the Woods. In fact, research has found that children with ADHD seem to focus better after being outdoors. A University of Illinois (2008) study found that children with ADHD scored higher on a test of concentration after a walk through a park than after a walk through a residential neighborhood or downtown area.

5) Helps Prevent Nearsightedness. Nearsightedness (myopia) has been on the rise in children in recent years. In parts of the world where people spend most of their time indoors, rates of myopia have skyrocketed. By adulthood, one in three people in the United States has myopia. In parts of Asia, more than 95 percent of children and teens may wear glasses to correct for myopia. A Canadian study (Science News 2016) found that for one additional hour of outdoor time per week, the risk a child will develop myopia drops by about 14 percent. A systematic review looked at 25 recently published studies and found increased outdoor time to be protective for the development of myopia – about an extra 1.25 hours per day compared with control/baseline time spent outdoors reduced the risk of onset of myopia by 50%. Time outdoors had a stronger protective effect in children aged 6 years compared with kids aged 11 to 12 years enrolled in longitudinal studies (Brien Holden, 2017).

Forest Service Literature Review. The U.S. Forest Service Ecosystem Service Team in Portland, Oregon worked to translate scientific findings from a literature search. Their findings:

·         Researchers are demonstrating the positive effects of nature on blood pressure, cholesterol, outlook on life, and stress reduction. It has also proved beneficial to those with attention deficit disorder (Kuo and Taylor 2004).

·         People who walk 15 to 30 minutes a day are healthier than people who don’t—they have fewer diseases, are less likely to get cancer, have a lower risk of heart attack and stroke, and have better bone density.

·         Walking improves digestion and decreases the risk of intestinal cancer, reduces risk of type II diabetes, and reduces insulin dependency of diabetics. Walking recalibrates energy/fat storage so the body becomes more efficient and trim. Walking helps the kidneys, the lymphatic system, and the joints. It also diminishes some types of arthritis (Hartman 2006).

·         Research at Duke University in 1999 found that a brisk 30-minute walk three times a week was more effective in reducing depression symptoms than Zoloft® alone or Zoloft® and walking, and walkers were less likely to have a recurrence of depression (Hartman 2006).

·         “Parks and other natural environments are a fundamental health resource, particularly in terms of disease prevention” (Maller et al. 2008).

·         Spending time in nature also has been linked to longevity and decreased risk of mental illness in studies in Scandinavia and the Netherlands (De Vries et al. 2003, Grahn and Stigsdotter 2003).

·         Health benefits of nature may also have relevance to injury prevention and control, diabetes, asthma, arthritis, musculoskeletal conditions, and other maladies, including cancer (Li 2009).

·         A Japanese study of men and women on a 3-day/2-night trip to a forest included short walks each day (Li 2009). Blood and urine samples were tested during and following the trip. Results suggest that a monthly trip in nature could provide maintenance levels of cells that work to prevent cancer generation and development, among other benefits.

·         Breathing in antimicrobial compounds found in the essential oils of trees increases relaxation and improves stress management resulting in increased vitality and less anxiety, depression, and anger. It also may decrease risk of psychosocial-stress related diseases.

So the next time that someone tells you to “take a hike,” thank them and get outside.

References

Brien Holden Vision Institute. 2017. Time Spent Outdoors – How Effective in Myopia Prevention and Control? https://www.brienholdenvision.org/news/item/102-time-spent-outdoors-how-effective-in-myopia-prevention-and-control.html

De Vries, S.; Verheij, R.; Groenewegen, H.; Spreeuwenberg, P. 2003. Natural environments—healthy environments? An exploratory analysis of the relationship between green space and health. Environment and Planning. 35(10): 1717–1731.

Ferguson, Jill. 2017. 5 benefits of being outdoors. June 10, 2017. (https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/5-benefits-of-being-outdoors_us_5938266ce4b014ae8c69dce0)

Grahn, P.; Stigsdotter, U.A. 2003. Landscape planning and stress. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening. 2: 1–18.

Hartmann, T. 2006. Walking your blues away: how to heal the mind and create emotional well-being. Rochester, VT: Park St. Press. 112 p.

Harvard Health Letter. 2010. A prescription for better health: go alfresco, July, 2010. (https://www.health.harvard.edu/newsletter_article/a-prescription-for-better-health-go-alfresco)

Jordan, Rob. 2015. Stanford researchers find mental health prescription: Nature. Study finds that walking in nature yields measurable mental benefits and may reduce risk of depression. https://news.stanford.edu/2015/06/30/hiking-mental-health-063015/

Kuo, F.; Taylor, A. 2004. A potential natural treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: evidence from a national study. American Journal of Public Health. 94(9): 1580–1586.

Lee, Bruce Y. 2017. 10 Health Problems That the Outdoors Can Help Prevent And Treat. Forbes, January 8, 2017

Li, Q. 2009. Effect of forest bathing trips on human immune function. Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine. 15(1): 9–17.

Louv, Richard. 2006. Last Child in the Woods- Saving Our Children from Nature-Deficit Disorder. Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill. 334 pages.

Louv, Richard. 2012. The Nature Principle- Reconnecting with Life in a Virtual Age. Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill. 330 pages.

Maller, C.; Townsend, M.; St. Leger, L.; et al. 2008. Healthy parks, healthy people: the health benefits of contact with nature in a park context. Melbourne, Australia: Deakin University and Parks Victoria.

PerfectMind Blog. 10 Health Benefits of an Outdoor Lifestyle. http://blog.perfectmind.com/10-health-benefits-of-an-outdoor-lifestyle

Reynolds, Gretchen. 2013. The benefits of exercising outdoors. New York Times, February 21, 2013. https://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/02/21/the-benefits-of-exercising-outdoors/?_r=1

Oosthoek, Sharon. 2016. Outdoor time is good for your eyes. Science News, December 20, 2016. https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/outdoor-time-good-your-eyes

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 2008. A Walk in the Park Improves Attention in Children with ADHD. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081015120742.htm

University of Queensland. 2016. Dose of Nature is just what the doctor ordered. https://www.uq.edu.au/news/article/2016/06/dose-of-nature-just-what-doctor-ordered

U.S. Forest Service. Health and Wellness Benefits of Spending Time in Nature. https://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/about/programs/gsv/pdfs/health_and_wellness.pdf

Wallace, Jennifer. 2017. Why it’s good for grown-ups to go play. Washington Post,  May 20, 2017 https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/why-its-good-for-grown-ups-to-go-play/2017/05/19/99810292-fd1f-11e6-8ebe-6e0dbe4f2bca_story.html?utm_term=.865e78b83c9b

Williams, Florence. 2016. This is your brain on nature. National Geographic (January 2016) https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2016/01/call-to-wild/

William, Florence. 2017. The Nature Fix. W.W. Norton & Company. 304 pages.

A Commitment to Experience, Stewardship, and Community

Mountain Sky Guest Ranch has a long history of providing a quality guest experience that is authenticated in a rebooking rate that consistently tops 85 percent. That didn’t happen by accident, rather it happened by design.

In Montana, the Arthur Blank Family of Businesses (AMB) are committed to the Experience, Stewardship, and Community. These three tenets are embedded in the fabric of Mountain Sky Guest Ranch, West Creek Ranch, and the Basecamp and Challenge Course:

Experience: provide authentic experiences and lifelong memories for our guests.

Stewardship: work to develop and implement sustainable business practices that maintain the quality of our landscape.

Community: be socially and economically responsible to the local community and broader society.

Further our actions seek to epitomize AMB's core values -- in particular, leading by example, innovating continuously, and giving back to others.

In Montana, our brand, guest experience, and economic sustainability are inexorably linked to our environment. The ranches are a vital piece of the larger Paradise Valley-Greater Yellowstone Ecoregion that makes up one of the most unique landscapes in the world. As this ecosystem is central to the guest experience, the AMB business model is bound to the future of open space, wildlife habitat, water quality, and human community.

The Paradise Valley, viewed from 50,000-feet presents itself as four principal components (photo below): the dark green of the forestlands, the browns and light greens of range and agricultural lands, the blue ribbons of the Yellowstone River and its tributaries, and the circles, squares, and lines of human communities. Collectively, these are the components that make up the landscape, and they define AMB's work in the region.

Ranching, Open Space, and Wildlife. Montana is known as “Big Sky Country.” It is a description of both the size and the quality of the land, its topography, its flora and fauna, and its human use. For the Paradise Valley, the future of open space, and the wildlife that depends on it, hinges on the preservation of working lands (i.e., ranching, timberland, and recreational industry). Fragmentation of this landscape is the number one concern in the Paradise Valley. While fences, agricultural practices, and the like have their impacts, the primary cause for fragmentation is the loss of traditional ranching.  The preservation of ranching as a prime economic activity, therefore, becomes the single best way to preserve the region’s wildlife, open space, and ecosystem services. To us it means:

·         Experience: Guests get a first-hand look at the landscape with wranglers as their guides

·         Stewardship: Sustainable grazing practices backed up by annual monitoring

·         Community: Grants to Western Sustainability Exchange in support of sustainable ranching

Upper Yellowstone Watershed. The Yellowstone is a complex river, at once iconic while neglected, beloved while ignored, famed for its blue-ribbon fisheries while essential for irrigation water. The river is vital to the local economy yet poorly monitored; it shows signs of ecological stress, yet lacks a champion represented by a broad coalition of interests. To us it means:

·         Experience: Guests fish Big Creek and the Yellowstone

·         Stewardship: Commitment of in-stream flow in Big Creek for fisheries, and regular water quality testing

·         Community: Grants and volunteer time to Upper Yellowstone Watershed Group

Forestlands. The Paradise Valley is encircled by public lands providing a wealth of ecosystem services (e.g., clean water), recreational opportunity, and other contributions. The largest land manger in the region, is the U.S. Forest Service. It is not an exaggeration to state that where goes the national forest, so goes Mountain Sky Guest Ranch and West Creek Ranch.

Being a neighbor to the national forest brings the benefits of grazing leases and multitude of recreational trails. These benefits, however, are counterbalanced by the menace of wildfire, noxious weeds, and trespass. At present, the future of the 155,000-acre Hyalite Porcupine Buffalo Horn Wilderness Study Area, lying adjacent to Mountain Sky Guest Ranch and West Creek Ranch, is uncertain; the Forest Plan is undergoing its first update in 30 years; Forest Service budgets are at all-time lows; and need for constructive community engagement in forest planning and ongoing management is critical. To us it means:

·         Experience: Enjoying an adult beverage watching the light play across the forest

·         Stewardship: Managing juniper encroachment to maintain grasslands and sage-shrub

·         Community: Supporting Future Farmers of America's annual holiday collection of trees and wreath-making materials on the ranches

Community. Author Wallace Stegner observed that when the western United States “fully learns that cooperation, not rugged individualism, is the quality that most characterizes and preserves it… then it has a chance to create a society to match its scenery.” 

The earliest European settlers, awed by the natural beauty and fertile soils along the Yellowstone River, called the place “Paradise Valley,” and it remains so to this day. The economy of Paradise Valley is growing and expanding. It possesses an enviable combination of high-quality amenities (e.g., education, recreation, airport access) combined with abundant scenery. The presence of public lands and deep agricultural roots gives the region a natural competitive advantage for continued economic growth. The upsides of this growth include new job creation and a richer overall social and intellectual fabric. These come with the challenge of managing growth, including sustaining the way of life that residents enjoy and the need to provide quality human services. Growth also unsettles. With a growing population of people “from away,” the community’s cohesiveness is threatened and the status quo is no longer “the way things used to be.” To us it means:

•          Experience: Guests enjoying the annual Livingston Fourth of July Rodeo

•          Stewardship: Basecamp and Challenge Course offered to regional nonprofits

•          Community: Staff volunteering in the Livingston Food Pantry

As we do our work, we are guided by four basic principles: 1) focus on maintaining open space and working lands; 2) recognize that sustainable means land health, profitability, and social capital; 3) cooperate and collaborate; and 4) identify the common ground that unites, not the fringe that divides.

Yellowstone Elk: Conservation and Management

 Figure 1. Bull elk with cows (photo: Gallatin Wildlife Association).

ELK IN THE GREATER YELLOWSTONE

The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE) is home to approximately 30,000–40,000 elk. Nine discrete herds, totaling 10,000-20,000 animals compose the Greater Yellowstone “superherd” whose summer range is in the core protected area of the GYE. Come winter, the majority of these animals will migrate to lower elevations, outside the park, while some will remain in the same area year-round. The timing and routes of elk migration closely follow the areas of seasonal vegetation growth and changes in snow depth. After winters with high snowpack, elk delay their vernal migration while in years with lower snowpack and earlier vegetation green-up, elk migrate earlier. There is growing evidence that elk are changing their migratory habits in response to predators: bears, wolves, mountain lions and human hunters. Figure 2 depicts the general location and migratory routes of the nine elk herds, each named for where they winter.

The dynamics of the Paradise Valley herd is highly dependent on private lands and its seasonal migrations have become more constrained. The Northern Herd is the best known and studied herd (along with the Jackson Herd), and the impact of wolves and hunting on population numbers continues to be sharply debated. The Madison Herd summers in and around the Madison Range, and winters in large groups on the high benchlands of the Madison Valley.

Figure 2. Nine distinct herds comprise the Yellowstone Superherd. Research by Arthur Middleton. Map by National Geographic (May 2016).

BIOLOGY/ECOLOGY

Elk (Cervus elaphus) are one of the most abundant large mammals found in the GYE, and they are a vital contributor to the ecology of the region: as prey for large carnivores, carrion for scavengers, and consumers of vegetation. Elk are also an economic mainstay for hunting and tourism in the states of Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho. It is not an overstatement that elk define and unify the GYE, both ecologically and culturally.

While North American’s elk is the same species as Europe’s red deer, the name “elk” is actually the European word for moose. Small wonder that European visitors can get confused on visiting Yellowstone. The species is perhaps better labelled “wapiti,” Shawnee for “white deer” or “white-rumped deer.”

Bull elk weigh about 700 pounds and stand some five feet high at the shoulder; cow elk weigh some 500 pounds and are slightly shorter. Calves are about 30 pounds at birth; born May to late-June, overlapping with periods of peak vegetation green-up and high-nutrition plant phases allowing mothers and calves to build up fat reserves. Elk feed on grasses, sedges, other herbs and shrubs, as well of aspen sprouts and bark, conifer needles, and aquatic plants.

In the fall, bull elk bugle to attract cows and challenge other bulls for dominance. The bugle is not so much a bugle coming from a brass horn as a bellow building to a squeal, terminating in a grunt (listen at https://elknetwork.com/elkfacts/). Dominant bulls gather cows and calves into small groups or harems and then aggressively guard these harems against all comers.

ANTLER MANIA

Bull elk grow massive racks which begin growing in the spring in response to a depression of testosterone levels and lengthening daylight. Yearling bulls grow antlers for about 90 days while healthy, mature bulls grow theirs over a +/- 140 day period. In the later stage of growth, antlers of a mature bull will grow 0.66 inches per day reaching 60” or more in length and weighing some 30 pounds per pair. During much of the summer, “velvet” covers the antlers -- a thick, fuzzy coating of skin, which nourishes and deposits the calcium that forms the antler. Antler growth typically ends in early August, and the bulls begin scraping the velvet off, polishing and sharpening the antler tines in preparation for the coming rut (mating season) in September and October.

Bulls retain their antlers through the winter. When antlered, bulls usually settle disputes by wrestling with their racks. When antlerless, they use their front hooves (as cows do), which is more likely to result in injury to one of the combatants. Because bulls spend the winter with other bulls or with gender-mixed herds, retaining antlers means fewer injuries sustained overall. Also, bulls with large antlers that are retained longer are at the top of elk social structure, allowing them preferential access to feeding sites and mates. Antlers are dropped annually, in March-April, and the process begins anew.

NORTHERN HERD DYNAMICS

The Northern Elk Herd is Yellowstone’s largest herd. Its summer range is centered in the area of the Lamar and Yellowstone river valleys, north of Yellowstone Lake, from Soda Butte to Gardiner, Montana. In winter the herd migrates north outside of the park into the Gallatin National Forest and the lower elevation private lands. With more moderate temperatures and less snowfall than the park interior, the Paradise Valley and surrounds supports large numbers of wintering elk. 

Figure 3. Winter counts of the Northern Elk Herd in Yellowstone National Park and adjacent areas of Montana, 1960–2016. Counts are not adjusted for elk sightability, and gaps represent years where no official count was conducted. Source: NPS.

For decades, debate raged over too many elk and the disappearance of willow and aspen from the Lamar Valley and elsewhere. Control of a burgeoning elk population was one of the main arguments for returning the gray wolf as it would provide a year-round predator to control elk numbers and keep them more dispersed across the landscape.

The winter count was approximately 17,000 when wolf reintroduction began in 1995. The number fell below 10,000 in 2003 and 3,914 were censused in 2013 -- the lowest since culling ended in the park in the 1960s. Decreased numbers are attributed to large carnivore recovery (wolf, bears, mountain lion), hunter harvest, and drought-related effects on pregnancy and survival. A total of 4,844 elk were counted in winter 2015 with the expressed hope that the elk decline has stabilized as efforts to maintain wolf numbers have also been implemented (Figure 3).

There is little doubt that the return of gray wolves have altered elk behavior -- group sizes, habitat selection, movements, distribution, and vigilance. There are some indications that elk–wolf interactions are contributing to a release of willows and other woody vegetation on the northern range. At the same time, the debate continues over the overall condition of the Northern Yellowstone range and its carrying capacity, with several range specialists continuing to point out that the range is seriously overstocked by bison and elk.

DISEASE

Many elk and bison in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem have been exposed to the bacterium that causes brucellosis. Brucellosis is a contagious bacterial disease that originated in livestock and often causes infected cows (cattle and elk) to abort their first calves. It is transmitted primarily when susceptible animals directly contact infected birth material. No cure exists for brucellosis in wild animals.

Because of their high densities, elk that are fed in winter have sustained high levels of brucellosis. Winter feeding on the Northern Range stopped more than 50 years ago but winter feeding of elk continues at the National Elk Refuge in Jackson, Wyoming, in addition to 22 Wyoming-run feed grounds. The feed grounds were created in the 1900s to maintain Wyoming’s elk herds and limit depredation as migratory routes from summer range to lower elevation winter ranges became blocked by settlement in the Jackson area. Transmission of brucellosis from feed ground elk, where an average of 30% have tested positive for exposure to the bacteria, was the apparent source of infection in Wyoming cattle in 2004.

Elk, deer, and moose in Greater Yellowstone are at moderate risk for exposure to chronic wasting disease (CWD). This fatal infection, transmitted by animal contact or through the environment, has spread to within 130 miles of the park from the southeast.

FALL HUNTING & SPRING SHED HUNTING

The “Welcome Hunter” banners hanging on the front of local taverns, gas stations and restaurants, and the “No Vacancy” signs at local motels in the fall signal the importance of big game hunters, both resident and non-resident, to Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming’s economy. In 2016, big game hunters in Montana spent an estimated $324 million and supported more than 3,300 jobs.

Elk Hunting by State, 2014, State-wide and in the GYE (National Geographic, May 2016)
	Idaho	Montana	Wyoming
Elk Population (state-wide)	105,000	160,000	114,600
Elk Harvested state/GYE	20,600/2,710	25,735/7,310	25,905/10,666
Hunters state/GYE	85,000/12,866	107,663/29,446	58,266/29,957
Elk License Fees*	$43.50/$571.50	$47.00/$860.00	$69.50/$603.50

Includes license, tags, and processing fees for 2016

Shed hunting, the hunting of the cast-off antlers of elk, deer, and moose, has become increasingly popular in recent years, leading to more competition among shed hunters, more conflicts with private land owners from trespass and vandalism, and more impact on big game herds. State Wildlife Management Areas and ranchers are reporting a growing number of incidences. There have even been reported cases where individuals have run antlered elk through trees in early spring in the hope of breaking off antlers.

Currently there are no seasons or required licenses for shed hunting. But that may change as many shed hunters take to the field to gather antlers during the worst time of the year for the animals themselves. Wintering big game animals are very susceptible to any kind of disturbance, especially in the late winter and early spring. At that time of year elk, deer and moose are just trying to hang on until spring green-up, drawing from their diminished body reserves and what little nourishment they can get from surrounding vegetation (like conifer needles and bark). Disturbance from passing motorists, snowmobilers, skiers, dogs, or shed hunters, who intentionally or unintentionally enter areas where elk are bedded down, depletes the little energy the animals have left. This stress and energy depletion leads to sickness and oftentimes death, especially for fawns and calves at this critical time of year.

Ethical shed hunting focuses on not disturbing big game animals on their bedding grounds, respecting public land closures and posted private lands, keeping dogs under control.

Antlers or Horns? Antlers, found on members of the deer family, grow as an extension of the animal’s skull. They are true bone, are a single structure, and, generally, are found only on males. Horns, found on pronghorn, bighorn sheep, and bison, are a two-part structure. An interior portion of bone (an extension of the skull) is covered by an exterior sheath grown by specialized hair follicles (similar to human fingernails). Antlers are shed and regrown yearly while horns are never shed and continue to grow throughout an animal’s life. One exception is the pronghorn, which sheds and regrows its horn sheath each year. Average, healthy, mature bull has 6 tines on each antler: a "six point" or "six by six." One-year-old bulls grow 10–20 inch spikes, sometimes forked. Two-year-old bulls usually have slender antlers with 4 to 5 points. Three-year-old bulls have thicker antlers. Four-year-old and older bulls typically have 6 points; antlers are thicker and longer each year. Eleven- or twelve-year old bulls often grow the heaviest antlers; after that age, the size of antlers generally diminishes.

RESOURCES AND REFERENCES

Yellowstone Elk Information. https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/nature/elkinfo.htm

On the Path of Yellowstone’s Elk, Nathan Martin. The Atlantic, June 21, 2016.  https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/06/on-the-path-of-yellowstones-elk/488063/

Yellowstone Resources and Issues Handbook. U.S. Department of the Interior, pages 200-204.

Yellowstone. National Geographic, May 2016

Elk Facts. Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation. https://elknetwork.com/elkfacts/

Quaking and Trembling

Perhaps no single element so eloquently captures the aesthetic appeal of the Rocky Mountains as the Quaking Aspen (Populus tremuloides). Their white barks with black accents, trembling leaves, and contrasting light green foliage exclaim themselves apart from the dark green of the surrounding pines, firs, and spruces. In the Fall, their presence is further punctuated by the aspen’s vibrant yellow leaves that turn to flecks of gold as the leaves take to the wind.

Aspen stand. Photo by Whitney Tilt

Prime Real Estate. Aspen is the most widely distributed tree species native to North America. In ecological terms, aspen have great “amplitude,” occupying a wide range of elevations, aspects, and soils. Along with riparian areas, aspen communities are considered the most biologically diverse ecosystems in the Intermountain West and critical wildlife habitats. Aspen provide forage for wildlife and livestock and their trunks provide a virtual apartment building for nesting and feeding, especially as they age. The open canopy of aspen stands allows sunlight to reach the forest floor supporting a diverse community of forbs that are also a wildlife magnet. Aspen prefer moist soils and their stands provide cool, shaded habitats. They are particularly adept at retaining water relative to other forest types. As a keystone species, their presence (or absence) significantly affects the survival and abundance of many other closely associated species.

A wide range of bird species, like the Red-naped Sapsucker, depend on aspen for food and nesting sites.
Photo by Mark Resendes.

Heavy Weight Champion of the World. Aspen also have the distinction of being the largest living organism in the known world, by weight. This is a result of aspen’s habitat of propagating primarily vegetatively rather than by seed. Groves of aspen trees are commonly clones, where adult trees are all genetically identical to each and connected by their root system. As adult trees die off, new sprouts, called "suckers", grow from the roots and the clone continues to survive. In some cases, these clones may be tens of thousands of years old. The Pando (Latin for “I spread”) Clone, in Utah’s Fishlake National Forest, is estimated to weight 13 million pounds, cover 106 acres, and have lived for 80,000 years.

Aspen in Decline. The aspen’s valuable contribution to the ecology and esthetics of the region, however, does not ensure its survival. Aspen stands are in significant decline from their historical abundance across the Rockies (Arizona -96%, Colorado -49%, Utah -51%, Wyoming -53%, Montana -64%).

As an early serial species, aspen require open canopies and continuing disturbance events, principally wildfire, windstorms, and/or disease, to maintain stand vigor, stimulate regeneration, and keep the surrounding conifer forest at bay. As aspen stands age and are not renewed by disturbance, conifer species (e.g., Douglas-fir, Engelmann spruce) encroach and overtop the aspen, ultimately crowding the aspen out of existence. Adding to their vulnerability, aspen are a relatively short-lived species (individual trees as opposed to the overall clone) living an average of 60-80 years while their thin, living bark make them susceptible to a host of insect pests and diseases. Add to these vulnerabilities, the fact that they are also tasty, marking young aspen shoots and saplings as a favorite browse for elk and other wildlife, as well as livestock. To add insult to injury, decades of drought and warmer temperatures in the Rocky Mountain West have taken their collective toll.

Managing for Aspen. In the absence of wildfire or wind-throw, several possible treatments are available for managers to improve aspen stand health and vitality. The primary management tools center on creating physical disturbance and managing herbivory.

1. Prescribed fire, wildland fire	Use fire to burn adult trees and encroaching conifers. Found to elicit best aspen regrowth, but comes with risks and liabilities as controlling prescribed fires or allowing wildfires to burn is difficult.
2. Dozing	Mechanically uproot adult trees and break apart root systems. Commonly generates high regeneration of stems, but eliminates adult trees until new growth matures.
3. Cut/Harvest	Cutting adult trees and encroaching conifers allows for more selective harvesting, and is effective at stimulating regrowth, although it may not yield the same kinds of stem densities as treatments 1 or 2.
4. Ripping	Physically breaking up root systems with a ripping blade in the stand. Stimulates regeneration without killing existing adult trees, but generally does not elicit same regeneration responses as methods 1-3.

Successful aspen regeneration at the High Lonesome Ranch, NW Colorado.
Note the remaining decadent stand in the background.

Managing to stimulate aspen regeneration is commonly the first step. In areas of livestock and wildlife use, however, the new growth will need some form of protection from critters. Methods range from herd management to physical barriers:

5. Limit Herbivory

a. Limit or reduce livestock in treatment areas, if possible or practical; not an option for wildlife. b. Erect barriers to fence out wildlife and/or livestock. Erect traditional livestock fencing or other barriers (e.g., jackstrawing felled trees). Fencing can be very effective, but costly and requires continued maintenance.

Aspen in their fall colors. Photo by Whitney Tilt

Resources

Blue Valley Ranch. Aspen Forest Management. http://bluevalleyranch.com/explore/aspen-forest/

Campbell, Robert B. and Dale Bartos. 2001. Aspen Ecosystems: Objectives for Sustaining Biodiversity. USDA Forest Service Proceeding RMRS-P-18.

Paige, Christine. 2017. Bring Back the Gold. 2017. Bugle Magazine, Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation, September-October: 104-112.

Shepperd, Wayne D.; Paul C Rogers; David Burton; and Dale L. Bartos. 2006. Ecology, biodiversity, management, and restoration of aspen in the Sierra Nevada. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-178. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station 122 p.

Season of the Sting

Wandering around the Montana outdoors, whether on foot, horse, or bike is going to bring us into contact with our stinging insect neighbors, specifically bees and wasps. These include the bumblebees, sweat bees, mud-daubers, thread-waisted wasps, honey bees, paper wasps, bald-faced hornets, and yellowjackets. During the late summer and early fall yellowjackets become very active and aggressive in their search for food, increasing the likelihood of us getting stung. At best, such encounters are painful, at worst they can be life-threatening.

Photo: Pest Control Plus: https://www.pestcontrolplus.biz/

yellow-jackets-information/

Wasps and bees, along with ants, are insects in the order Hymenoptera (“membrane wing”). There are literally hundreds of thousands of known and undiscovered Hymenoptera species. Collectively these insects are beneficial pollinators, predators on other insects, and useful scavengers. These insects may be solitary, living and foraging alone without building nests or be social, living together in nests comprising thousands of workers and one queen, organized in a distinct caste system to cooperatively rear young and defend the nest.

The words wasp, hornet and yellowjacket are commonly used interchangeably, but this both confusing and inaccurate. The name “yellowjacket” properly applies to medium-sized black-and-yellow wasp species in the Vespula and Dolichovespula genus, such as the Western Yellowjacket (Vespula pensylvania). “Hornet” is properly applied to larger black-and-ivory species in the Dolichovespula genus, such as the Bald-faced Hornet (Dolichovespula maculate). The other common wasp is the paper wasp, such as the European Paper Wasp (Poliistes dominulus), whose appearance is similar to that of the yellowjacket but slimmer and more elongate. Humans commonly tangle with yellowjackets, hornets, and paper wasps when we inadvertently approach their nest, mistakenly trap them in our clothing, or get between them and their intended food.

Social Insects

The generalized life cycle of social insects is a lesson in evolutionary complexity. In the case of social wasps, young queens emerge from their overwintering sites emerge in the late spring/early summer and begin creating a colony by constructing a new colony. Built for wood fibers chewed from trees, fences, and even cardboard, they construct a small, papery, umbrella-shaped nest underground or in a tree, roof eve, or other site.. Yellowjackets commonly build subterranean nests in abandoned animal burrows, fallen logs, or crevices, while both yellowjackets and bald-faced hornets build aerial nests. After selecting a suitable site, the queen fashions 20 or more hexagon-shaped cells and lays an egg in each. In 2-3 weeks, dependent on temperature, the larva pupates, then emerges as a worker wasp. As their name suggests, these unfertile female “workers” are responsible for finding food, feeding the young, enlarging the nest and defending it. The queen stays in the nest getting fed and laying eggs.

In late summer or early fall, the queen lays a series of unfertilized eggs that grow into drones (fertile males) and fertile females (potential future queens) who remain in the nest, fed by workers until they’re ready to leave the nest in mating flights. Fertile females who have successfully mated with one or more drones overwinter underground or in logs and such to emerge the next year and start the cycle anew. All other members of the colony, including the founding queen, die as winter’s hard freeze arrives.

 Hornets, Yellowjackets, and Paper Wasps

Bald-faced Hornets. Relatively large (3/4”), heavy-bodied, ivory-and-black wasp. Build above-ground paper nests that can be as large as a football. May have leaves and twigs in outer nest wall. Feed on other insects (including yellowjackets) and not commonly a nuisance around human foods. When provoked, their sting is painful due to strength of their venom.

Photo: Bug Hunters Pest Control http://www.bughunterspestcontrol.com/montana-pests.html

Paper Wasps. Similar in overall appearance to yellowjacket but with a slimmer, elongate body, and longer legs that dangle in flight. Build open, down-pointed umbrella-shaped nests with no outer paper covering in protected areas. Feed on soft-bodies, leaf-feeding insects and nectar. Relatively docile but will sting in defense of nest or when found in close contact.

Photo © Derrick Ditchburn/ http://www.dereila.ca/bugs06/page1b.html

Yellowjackets. Medium-sized (1/2” long), black-and-yellow wasp. Nest built above-and below ground, not containing leaves or twigs in outer paper layer. Feed on other insects, carrion, nectar and fruits, and human foods. Most aggressive of the stinging wasps.

Photo: Creative Commons

Uninvited Picnic Guests

Unlike honey bees, yellowjackets do not produce honey or store floral nectar in the nest. They feed primarily on other living insects, killing them by bite or by stinger. As summer progresses, insect prey becomes scarcer, and the nest’s demand for food increases, yellowjackets become more scavengers, seeking out honeydew (the liquid secreted by aphids), fruits, nectar, carrion, and human foods. This scavenging behavior brings yellowjackets into close contact with humans. The incidence humans getting stung increases markedly as the wasps climb on picnic plates and enter open soda cans in search of sugary foods.

While wasps can both bite and sting, it’s the sting we remember. Located at the tip of the abdomen, the sting is a needle-like device that delivers a dose of venom. Only the female worker wasps have stingers, but that is small comfort since they are by far the most numerous and most likely encountered. The stingers of wasps are not barbed (like those of bees), allowing them to sting repeatedly. Wasps sting to kill their insect prey, in defense of their nests, and when otherwise provoked. An interesting evolutionary note is that the sting is a modified egg-laying tube evolved over time into a venom-delivery system. The queen retains the egg-laying ability while the infertile female workers got the sting.

Most of us react to being stung with a string of invectives, moderate-to-intense short-term pain, followed by a localized reaction to the venom consisting of itching, redness and swelling around the sting site. Some 1-3 percent of the human population, however, may experience a systemic (whole-body) reaction that may require emergency medical treatment.

Emergency Medical and First Aid Response

Immediately contact EMS support if the victim:

·         Has known allergic response to insect stings.

·         Cannot breathe easily, tightness in the throat, have difficulty swallowing, feel light-headed.

·         Changes to the skin such as breaking out into hives.

·         Is stung several times, or has been stung in recent days.

·         Is stung inside mouth, or around neck.

First Aid Relief Strategies:

·         Ice compresses to reduce swelling and associated pain.

·         Apply a paste of water and baking soda to sting site.

·         Use vinegar or anti-itch cream to treat itching,

·         Take OTC oral antihistamines and pain medicines.

·         Gently wash sting site with soap and warm water.

Resources

Homeowner Guide to Yellowjackets, Bald-Faced Hornets and Paper Wasps. Edward Bechinski, Frank Merickel, Lyndsie Stoltman, and Hugh Homan. University of Idaho Extension, Bulletin 852. http://extension.uidaho.edu/clearwater/files/2014/11/Homeowner-Guide-to-Yellowjackets-Bald-Faced-Hornets-and-Paper-Wasps.pdf

Montana Bee Identification Guide. Casey Delphia, Kevin O’Neill, and Scott Prajzner. Montana State University. http://www.pollinator.org/PDFs/MontanaBeeGuide-Final.pdf

Social wasps and Bees in the Upper Midwest. Jeff Hahn, Laura Jesse and Patrick Liesch. University of Minnesota Extension. https://www.extension.umn.edu/garden/insects/find/wasp-and-bee-control/

What to Do for Yellow Jacket Stings. Healthline.com @ http://www.healthline.com/health/yellow-jacket-stings#overview1